What is taoism?

What is Taoism? Is it a highly sophisticated ancient Chinese philosophy? Is it an organized form of popular religion? Or does it have anything to do with either of these, or both? Questions such as these are fundamental for an understanding of Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching. In what mindset should this work be read and analyzed: from the same perspective one would use to analyze the bible, or more like the perspective one would use to analyze Socrates or Kant? This question, posed in this way, is the fundamental example of what must be avoided when analyzing the Tao. Taoism is unknown and enigmatic, but it has a pervasive influence on Chinese religion, philosophy, and daily life. It cannot be reduced into a single western category of philosophy or religion, etc. It can, however, be examined in terms of its historical or quasi-historical origins and from a comparative perspective with western culture.

The primary difficulty in analyzing the Tao Te Ching is that of translation. The indigenous language in which the Tao Te Ching was written uses symbols to represent things. For example, one symbol represents "the way" (Tao), another represents "virtue" (Te), and although there are qualifiers such as a symbol which represents "nothing" or "without" (wu), there is no coherent way of absolutely knowing the relationship between symbols. There is no linguistic construction for concretely representing causal relationships, for emphasizing certain characters, for detailing exactly what is meant to be said, etc. For example, if a series of characters read:

Tao Te wu

And was literally transcribed as:

What would this mean? There are numerous possibilities. The way is useless without virtue. The way and virtue are nothing. The way becomes virtue with nothing. The way becomes virtue of its own accord. . . . and a billion other variants. This linguistic difficulty means that each translator will translate his or her own perception of the Tao Te Ching instead of an absolutely incontrovertible version of the work. Unfortunately, because the linguistic problem is so pervasive, there is no way to completely discount any one translation which holds in general to Taoist principles. With this in mind, it should be noted that the Tao Te Ching analyzed in this paper is the D. C. Lau translation.

In terms of its historical significance, the Tao Te Ching's origins seem more fictitious than fact. The name Lao Tzu is translated as "old man." The author of this work is in fact a generic person. According to Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Historical Records, Lao Tzu was an actual person. He was a native of Ch'u-jen Village, Li County, K'u State, Ch'u Province. His surname was Li ("Plum"), his name was Erh ("Ears"), his formal name was Po-yang, and his spiritual name was Tan. He was reported to have worked as the keeper of the Royal Archives for the Eastern Chou Dynasty rules (McNaughton 7). However, Ssu-ma Ch'ien identifies Lao Tzu in various parts of his work as Tan the Historian, Lao Lai Tzu, and the father of Tuan-kan Tsung (Lau 11). According to the existing information, Lao Tzu would have had to live between 160 to 240 years to have actually existed in every historical period in which he is recorded in ancient historical texts. With all of this ambiguity surrounding the historical origins of the Tao Te Ching and Lao Tzu, the most likely scenario is that Lao Tzu is a fictitious character, and that the Tao Te Ching is actually a compilation of writings and sayings by various individuals about the Tao. Essentially, the Tao Te Ching has no valid historical context, except for its approximate inception between 551-479 BCE.

The nebulous idea of the Tao seems only natural in such a vague and ambiguous historical context with so many linguistic problems. There are, however, a few major themes in the Tao Te Ching which are easily contrasted with western ideas. Two of these major themes are the nature of knowledge and government.

The Tao Te Ching in its description of knowledge is a striking contrast to the west. The western idea of knowledge started with the ancient Greeks and Plato. Plato was relativistic in his idea that no physical object is perfect, and thus, no physical object could completely correctly be called say round. However, underlying this assertion is the theory of forms. To Plato there was such a thing as roundness, and it was perfect and incontrovertible. This concept of truth as actually existing, although it may not be perfect in the physical world, has affected the western view of knowledge and the development of science throughout western history.

In the Tao Te Ching, however, knowledge is less distinct. The tao is the source of existence and knowledge. It is that which makes the world the way it is. The tao is conceived as that which is responsible for the creation as well as the support of the universe (Lau 16). The following passages describe the tao in the Tao Te Ching:

The way [Tao] begets one; one begets two; two begets three; three begets the

myriad creatures (Tzu XLII, 93).

Of old, these came to be in possession of the One [Tao]:

Heaven in virtue of the One is limpid;

Earth in virtue of the One is settled;

Gods in virtue of the One have their potencies;

The valley in virtue of the One is full;

The myriad creatures in virtue of the One are alive;

Lords and princes in virtue of the One become leaders in the empire;

It is the One that makes these what they are (Tzu XXXIX, 85).

So it becomes obvious that the Tao is in its very essence, the Taoist definition of knowledge. Descriptions of the Tao, however, make it impossible to determine what it is:

The way [Tao] conceals itself in being nameless (Tzu XLI, 92).

The way that can be spoken of

Is not the constant way (Tzu I, 57).

As a thing the way [Tao] is

Shadowy, indistinct.

Indistinct and shadowy,

Yet within it is an image;

Shadowy and indistinct,

Yet within it is a substance.

Dim and dark,

Yet within it is an essence.

This essence is quite genuine

And within it is something that can be tested (Tzu XXI, 49).

So the Tao, which is knowledge is unfathomable. It is the ultimate idea, the ultimate truth, god, and the universe. The Tao is the most fundamental of all concepts and the most useful. The Tao is knowledge. The Tao, however, contrasts with a western conception of knowledge. It cannot be tested or put under investigation. It cannot be compared with other possibilities because we don't even know explicitly what it is. From a western perspective, the Tao is simply an assertion of truth, or a religion. But from a Taoist perspective, the Tao is much more that a religion. It is a way of life; it is a moral force; it is nothing; it is everything. But in its impact on Chinese thought, Taoism cannot simply be discounted as a religion. It can be put on par with Christianity, but also with existentialism. It can be seen as a moral precept, but also as a supernatural power.

The Tao Te Ching also proscribes how government should work. The Tao is just as important for governing as it is for morality. Politics and ethics are inseparable in Chinese thought and in the Tao Te Ching. The knowledge of the Tao makes the sage a good ruler because the government of the people should be modeled on the way the myriad creatures in the universe are ruled by the Tao (Lau 32). The Tao Te Ching consistently asserts that a ruler should follow and model himself after the Tao and follow the policy of resorting to no action. This Taoist precept contradicts a western definition of government fundamentally. Locke and Hobbes constructed social theory around the social contract. This contract is by its very nature an action. The collusion of peoples to form a society is the fundamental western construction for government. This social contract is artificial and enacted to conquer the harshness of nature, and the Hobbian conception of life in nature as "nasty, brutish, and short." The Taoist philosophy, however, demands that the governing of peoples mirror nature by following the Tao. This includes a policy of no action in that society should work of its own accord just like nature. Trying to mold or fit society to human desires is destructive and leads to things like war, excessive power, poverty, and starvation. The following quotes exemplify the Taoist doctrine of the state:

Whoever takes the empire and wishes to do anything to it I see will have no

respite. The empire is a sacred vessel and nothing should be done to it.

Whoever does anything to it will ruin it; whoever lays hold of it will lose it (Tzu

XXIX, 66).

Governing a large state is like boiling a small fish (Tzu LX, 138).

The Taoist conception of the state sees the state as part of nature and something which requires no handling or modification. There is no social contract - society is natural. In this assertion, Taoism is probably much closer to reality than the fantastic western idea that individuals actually came together and formed some sort of contract of society. The natural evolution of men and primates in social groupings is well documented in biology - it is a "natural" phenomenon.

The object of a Taoist state, however, is to keep the people innocent of knowledge and free from desire (Lau 34). Taoism spurns luxuries. Anything beyond needed food, clothing, and shelter is excessive and objects of desire not need. This is in opposition to the Tao. According to the Tao Te Ching, even goodness excites desire:

Not to honor men of worth will keep the people from contention; not to value

goods which are hard to come by will keep them from theft; not to display what

is desirable will keep them from being unsettled of mind (Tzu III, 8).

The Tao Te Ching even asserts that the creation of social values is destructive. The creation of such values is in opposition to the way of nature or the Tao and can only cause harm. The Tao Te Ching, however, goes so far as to say that the ruler should keep his people ignorant and treat them like children - lying to them if necessary.

In governing the people, the sage empties their minds but fills their bellies,

weakens their wills but strengthens their bones. He always keeps them innocent

of knowledge and free from desire, and ensures that the clever never dare to act

(Tzu III, 9).

This idea is repugnant to a western point of view. It seems like the Taoist proscribes oppression and an iron hand - absolute control over his subjects. From the Taoist point of view, however, only by treating the people like this will you maintain the way of nature, follow the Tao, and prevent the perversions which follow from interfering with the Tao such as poverty, power, starvation, greed, etc.

Taoism is a fascinating contrast to western ideals. By defining the Tao as that which is natural, is solves most social, moral, and physical ills by proscribing the Tao. The truly interesting thing is that Taoism does not push an agenda or assign social values. By asserting that even social values are a perversion of the Tao and thus destructive, Taoism takes a revolutionary step apart from most other philosophies. Instead of the norm of arguing for which social values are most important: love or equality or freedom, etc - Taoism determines that such a question is itself destructive and should not be entertained. Only by following the Tao and mirroring nature in every aspect of your personal and social life, will peace be achieved. The Tao Te Ching, as a description of a nonwestern philosophy, holds many fascinating contrasts to fundamental assumptions of western society. In order to understand the Tao Te Ching's full value, it should be read as a criticism of western values.

Works Cited

Kohn, Livia. The Taoist Experience: an Anthology. State University of New

York Press: Albany, 1993.

Lau, D. C. Introduction to Tao Te Ching. Penguin Books: New York, 1963.

McNaughton, William. The Taoist Vision. The University of Michigan Press:

Ann Arbor, 1971.

Tzu, Lao. Tao Te Ching. Trans. D. C. Lau. Penguin Books: New York, 1963.